Arsenic

Graphite

Graphite (C)

Properties

Natural graphite is the mineral form of carbon, with atomic number 12. It can either form in hexagonal crystals or thin layers. Graphite is dark gray to black in color and is a nonmetal [1].

Applications

Natural graphite has many industrial applications, including use in refractories for steelmaking, batteries, powdered metals, and lubricants [2, 3]. Thermal and acid-leaching techniques have made the production of higher purity graphite powders possible. High purity graphite powders have the potential for use in advanced technologies such as fuel cells [2].

Sources

China accounts for approximately 700,000 metric tons of graphite mined annually, making it the world’s leading graphite producer [2].2 Large graphite deposits are being developed in eastern and southern Africa as well as Madagascar [2]. The top global graphite miners in 2020 were China (69%), India (12%), and Brazil (8%) 3].

Criticality

Natural graphite is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which include importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Graphite is an important component of lithium-ion batteries, a market that is likely to expand as electric vehicles become more widespread [4]. Natural graphite demand is therefore also predicted to increase in the future. Synthetic graphite powders, which are not critical, are an alternative to natural graphite.

Cerium

Cerieum (Ce)

Properties

Cerium is a gray metallic solid with atomic number 58. It is classified as a lanthanide and a light rare earth element [1].

Applications

Cerium is used in catalysts and additives for fluid catalytic cracking, glass and ceramics, polishing powders, nickel metal hydride batteries, and lighting [2]

Sources

The top global cerium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Cerium is near-critical by Department of Energy criteria, which include importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. Cerium is included on this list because it is a rare earth element (REE). Cerium is one of the most widely available rare earth elements, and existing inventories and lower-REE content substitutes prevent significant market disruptions [4].

Cobalt

Cobalt (Co)

Properties

Cobalt is a solid transition metal with atomic number 27. It is a black powder and naturally occurring [1]

Applications

Cobalt has various uses in alloys, hard materials, pigments and inks, catalysts, magnets, and batteries [2]. The leading global use for cobalt is in lithium-ion batteries [2].

Sources

Most cobalt is derived as a byproduct of copper or nickel mining [4]. Most production takes place in central Africa, with the Congo having 3,600,000 tons of cobalt in reserves [2]. There is estimated to be approximately 1 million tons of cobalt in resources in the United States [2]. The top global cobalt miners in 2020 were the Congo (59%), China (7%), and Canada (5%) [3]. The top global cobalt refiners are China (49%), Finland (12%), and Canada (6%) [3].

Criticality

Cobalt is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. As the demand for lithium-ion batteries containing cobalt increases with the production of electric vehicles, the demand for cobalt may dramatically increase [5].In the first decade of the 21st century, the production of cobalt was able to keep up with the demand, as new mining projects opened up [4]. Decreases in nickel and copper demand will negatively impact cobalt supply [4].

Copper

Copper (Cu)

Properties

Copper is a solid transition metal with atomic number 29. It is a naturally occurring trace element essential for life on Earth [1].

Applications

Copper and alloys containing copper are used in building construction, electronic products, transportation equipment, consumer products, and industrial equipment [2].

Sources

The majority of copper mine production takes place in Chile, with 5.7 million metric tons of copper mined in 2020 [2]. Refinery production takes place primarily in China, with 9.8 million metric tons of copper produced in 2020.2 The top global copper miners are Chile (30%), China (9%), and Peru (9%) [3]. The top global copper refiners in 2020 were China (33%), Chile (12%), and Japan (7%) [3].

Criticality

Copper is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. However, it has become increasingly important in applications including electrical and electronic products [7]. The world’s use of refined copper has tripled in the last 50 years due to the expansion of such industries [7]. Other minor metals that are usable byproducts of copper, such as cobalt, are dependent on copper mining and production [7].

Dysprosium

Dysprosium (Dy)

Properties

Dysprosium is a heavy rare earth element with atomic number 66. It is a silver-colored solid metal classified as a lanthanide [1].

Applications

Dysprosium is used in permanent magnets (PMs) for wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors. It serves as an agent to reduce demagnetization [4].

Sources

The top global dysprosium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Dysprosium is critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Dysprosium is among the most critical elements for clean energy technologies. As the demand for dysprosium increases for wind and EV technologies, its availability will be limited. In addition, the only current substitute for dysprosium is terbium, which is also rare and more expensive [4].

Erbium

Erbium (Er)

Properties

Erbium is a lanthanide metal with atomic number 68. It is a heavy rare earth element [1].

Applications

Erbium is used in optical applications and lighting [3].

Sources

The top global erbium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Erbium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies.5 It is included on this list because it is a heavy rare earth element [3].

Europium

Europium (Eu)

Properties

Europium is a heavy rare earth element with atomic number 63. It is a ductile lanthanide metal [1, 4].

Applications

Europium is used in the phosphors for fluorescent lighting [2, 4].

Sources

Europium is a byproduct of yttrium-rich clay ores [4]. The top global europium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each)[3].

Criticality

Europium is critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 As lighting energy efficiency standards are instituted globally, the demand for the phosphors used in fluorescent lighting will increase as the availability of europium oxide remains somewhat tight. This may cause price pressures on europium. As more efficient lighting alternatives become more widespread, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs), these price pressures should decrease [4].

Gallium

Gallium (Ga)

Properties

Gallium is a weak post-transition metal with atomic number 31 [1, 4]. It is a brittle solid at low temperatures and a liquid above room temperature [1].

Applications

Gallium is used in electronic devices, high-speed semiconductors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photovoltaic cells, microwave circuitry, and infrared technologies [4].

Sources

Most gallium is derived from the aluminum hydroxide solution generated when bauxite is refined into aluminum [4]. The top global gallium refiners in 2020 were China (80%), Germany (8%), and the Ukraine (5%) [3].

Criticality

Gallium is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 The demand for gallium will likely increase with time as the demand for smartphone technology, high-brightness LEDs, and high-efficiency photovoltaics increases [4].4 The supply risk for gallium is low, as there is no shortage of raw ore [4].

Gadolinium

Gadolinium (Gd)

Properties

Gadolinium is a rare earth element with atomic number 64. It is classified as a lanthanide and is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Gadolinium is used in nuclear fuel bundles, metal alloys, medical imaging technologies, electronics, and displays [2, 4].

Sources

The top global miners of gadolinium in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Gadolinium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies. New technologies including magnetic refrigeration, solid oxide fuel cells, and expansion of nuclear power generation may create an increased demand for gadolinium, altering the supply-demand balance [4] .

Germanium

Germanium (Ge)

Properties

Germanium is a metalloid with atomic number 32. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Germanium is used in infrared optics, optical fibers, and satellite solar cells [2].

Sources

Germanium is a by-product retrieved from zinc ores [3].3 The top global refiners of germanium in 2020 were China (80%), Germany (8%), and the Ukraine (5%) [3].

Criticality

Germanium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Germanium is important for energy applications and has moderate criticality [2, 4]. It is a byproduct of zinc and copper mining and therefore has the potential for supply risks.

Holmium

Holmium (Ho)

Properties

Holmium is a lanthanide and heavy rare earth element with atomic number 67. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Holmium is used in glass and optical applications [3].

Sources

The top global miners of holmium in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3]. The top global refiners of holmium in 2020 were China (97%), Japan (2%), and Estonia and the United Kingdom (1% each) [3].

Criticality

Holmium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. It is included on this list because it is a heavy rare earth element [3].

Indium

Indium (In)

Properties

Indium is a soft, gray, lustrous metal with atomic number 49 [4]. It is a post-transition metal and solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Indium is used in thin films for high-efficiency photovoltaic cells, indium-tin-oxide coatings for flat-panel displays, infrared detectors, and high-speed transistors [4].

Sources

Reclaimed indium from indium-tin-oxide scrap is 80% higher than primary production [4]. Virgin indium is produced only as a coproduct of zinc mining [4]. The top global refiners of indium in 2020 were China (48%), the Republic of Korea (21%), and Japan and Canada (8% each) [3].

Criticality

Indium is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 The current extraction of indium is inefficient, and demand for indium may increase with more demand for touch-screen display coatings, semiconductors, and solar panels [4]. Indium extraction has a codependence on zinc mining and could see a future limitation in supply due to slower demand growth for zinc [4].

Iridium

Iridium (Ir)

Properties

Iridium is a transition metal with atomic number 77. It is solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Iridium is used in electrochemical, electronic, and chemical applications [2].

Sources

The top global refiners of iridium in 2020 were South Africa (92%), Zimbabwe (5%), and Canada (2%) [3].

Criticality

Iridium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. It is a platinum group metal (PGM) [2]. When iridium is present in waste, it is likely to be recovered as part of the platinum group metals. Iridium recovery improves the economics of recycling other minor metals.

Lanthanum

Lanthanum (La)

Properties

Lanthanum is the lightest rare earth element in the lanthanide series, with atomic number 57. It is silvery-white in color [4].

Applications

The primary application for lanthanum is in fluid cracking catalysts for petroleum refining [2, 4]. It is also used in glass and ceramics, nickel metal hydride batteries, polishing powders, and lighting [2].

Sources

The top global miners of lanthanum in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Lanthanum is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Lanthanum supply is less critical than other rare earth elements as it is relatively abundant and can be inputted in lesser amounts during petroleum refining if necessary [4].

Lithium

Lithium (Li)

Properties

Lithium is a light alkali metal with atomic number 3 [1, 4]. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Lithium is used in ceramics and glass, batteries, lubricating greases, air-treatment facilities, continuous metal casting, and aluminum production [4].

Sources

Lithium is produced through saline brine evaporation but can also be derived from hard rock and spodumene deposits [4]. The top global miners of lithium in 2020 were Chile (38%), Australia (36%), and Argentina (12%). The top global refiners of lithium in 2020 were Chile (44%), China (39%), and Argentina (13%) [3].

Criticality

Lithium is near-critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. There is no indication of long-term lithium supply constraints. The demand for lithium for use in lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles is expected to increase [4].

Manganese

Manganese (Mn)

Properties

Manganese is a hard, brittle transition metal with atomic number 25 [4]. It is solid at room temperature.

Applications

Manganese is primarily used in steel production to increase the strength of alloys [4]. It is also used in lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for electric vehicles, brick making, chemicals, and fertilizers [4].

Sources

Manganese dioxide, which is used primarily in EV batteries, is produced synthetically [4].4 The top global miners of manganese in 2020 were South Africa (28%), China (17%), and Australia (17%). The top global refiners of manganese in 2020 were China (57%), India (12%), and South Africa and the Ukraine (5% each) [3].

Criticality

Manganese is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk[4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies.5 The overall global supply of manganese is large and any sudden increase in demand could likely be met by additional production capacity [4] .

Neodymium

Neodymium (Nd)

Properties

Neodymium is a light rare earth element with atomic number 60 [4]. It is a lanthanide and a solid at room temperature.

Applications

Neodymium is used in high-strength permanent magnets, glass and ceramic coloring, astronomical instruments, and glass lasers [4].

Sources

The top global neodymium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Neodymium is critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies.5 There will be an increase in demand for neodymium for use in electric vehicles, generators, wind turbines, and energy-efficient appliances.4 This will lead to tight supplies in the short term, and new mines outside of China will be subject to strict regulations, which may make significant increases in supply difficult [4] .

Nickel

Nickel (Ni)

Properties

Nickel is a hard, silvery-white metal with atomic number 28. It is a transition metal and is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Nickel is used in batteries, stainless steel, and catalysts [4].

Sources

A significant quantity of nickel for uses other than batteries is recovered from scrap metal [4]. The top global nickel miners in 2020 were Indonesia (18%), the Philippines (17%), and Australia and Russia (11% each). The top global nickel refiners in 2020 were China (29%), Russia (12%), and Japan (10%) [3].

Criticality

Nickel is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which include importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. The criticality for cobalt has led to the development of low cobalt-high nickel battery chemistries. This, in turn, puts pressure on the nickel supply chain and makes nickel a criticality concern. Batteries require nickel grade 1, which is in tight supply.

Palladium

Palladium (Pd)

Properties

Palladium is a transition metal with atomic number 45. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Palladium is primarily used in auto-catalysts, along with electronics, chemicals, dental applications, and jewelry [3].

Sources

The top global refiners of palladium in 2020 were Russia (40%), South Africa (37%), and Canada (10%) [3].

Criticality

Palladium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5] . It is currently important in catalytic converters, and could become important for electric vehicles and electricity storage [2, 4]. Palladium is a platinum group metal (PGM) and a precious metal [2].2 Currently, palladium is highly recycled due to its economic value. This element is included in this database with the hope to improve the recycling economics of other minor metals.

Praseodymium

Praseodymium (Pr)

Properties

Praseodymium is a soft, silvery, malleable light rare earth element with atomic number 59 [4]. It is a lanthanide and is a solid at room temperature. Praseodymium is paramagnetic at any temperature above 1 K [3].

Applications

Praseodymium is used in lighter flints, glass polishing, lasers, magnets, and batteries [5]. It can partially substitute for neodymium in high-strength permanent magnets for electric vehicle motors and wind turbine generators [4].

Sources

The top global praseodymium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Praseodymium is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies.5 While praseodymium is the least available of the light rare earth elements, it is projected to meet demand as new mines will contribute to supply increases [4].

Platinum

Platinum (pt)

Properties

Platinum is a silvery, malleable, ductile transition metal with atomic number 78. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Platinum is used in auto-catalysts, jewelry, chemicals, and medical applications [3].

Sources

The top platinum refiners in 2020 were South Africa (71%), Russia (13%), and Zimbabwe (7%) [3]

Criticality

Platinum is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Platinum could become critical for electric vehicles and electricity storage [5].5 It is currently important for its use in catalytic converters [2]. Currently, platinum is highly recycled due to its high economic value. This element is included in this database with the hope to improve the recycling economics of other minor metals.

Rhodium

Rhodium (Rh)

Properties

Rhodium is a transition metal with atomic number 45 [1]. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Rhodium is used in auto-catalysts, glass, and chemicals [3].

Sources

The top rhodium refiners in 2020 were South Africa (80%), Russia (12%), and Zimbabwe (5%) [3].

Criticality

Rhodium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4].It has low to moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Rhodium could become critical for electric vehicles and electricity storage [5].5 It is currently important for its use in catalytic converters [2]. Rhodium is a platinum group metal (PGM) [2]. This element is included in this database with the hope to improve the recycling economics of other minor metals.

Ruthenium

Ruthenium (Ru)

Properties

Ruthenium is a hard, brittle, gray rare earth metal with atomic number 44 [1]. It is a transition metal and is a solid at room temperature [3].

Applications

Ruthenium is used in chemicals, electronics, and electrochemical applications [3].

Sources

The top ruthenium refiners in 2020 were South Africa (93%), Zimbabwe (4%), and Canada (2%) [3].

Criticality

Ruthenium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It is not critical by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 Ruthenium is a platinum group metal (PGM) [2]. This element is included in this database with the hope to improve the recycling economics of other minor metals.

Samarium

Samarium (Sm)

Properties

Samarium is a lustrous silver-white light rare earth element with atomic number 62 [4]. It is a lanthanide and a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Samarium is used in magnets, military equipment, catalysts, and nuclear reactors [4].

Sources

Samarium is mined along with other rare earth elements from monazite, bastnasite, and samarskite deposits [4]. The top samarium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Samarium is not critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 Samarium cobalt magnets make up the primary demand for samarium, but they are used in specific applications requiring high-temperature ratings, including certain motors and generators [4].

Terbium

Terbium (Tb)

Properties

Terbium is a heavy rare earth element with atomic number 65 [4]. It is classified as a lanthanide and is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Terbium is used in various clean energy applications, including fluorescent lighting phosphors and magnets for electric motors [4]. It can also be substituted for dysprosium in permanent magnets [4].

Sources

The top terbium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Terbium is critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has moderate to high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 Terbium supply is very tight relative to demand.5 Terbium is scarce compared to other rare earth elements, with most deposits containing less than 1% by weight of terbium [4].

Tellurium

Tellurium (Te)

Properties

Tellurium is a brittle, silvery-white metalloid with atomic number 52 [1, 4]. It is a solid at room temperature [1].

Applications

Tellurium is used in photovoltaic film, steel alloys, rubber processing, synthetic fibers, and electronics [4].

Sources

Tellurium is produced as a byproduct of copper and some nonferrous metals [4]. The top terbium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Tellurium is near-critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low to moderate criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 Tellurium is dependent on the production of copper [4].

Vanadium

Vanadium (V)

Properties

Vanadium is a transition metal with atomic number 23. It occurs in nature as a white-gray metal in crystalline, solid form [1].

Applications

Vanadium is primarily used as an alloying agent in high-strength steels, a catalyst in sulfuric acid production, and an electrolyte component for vanadium redox batteries [4].

Sources

Vanadium is usually recovered as a byproduct or coproduct of other mining operations, but it can also be mined alone from phosphate rock, titaniferous magnetite, uraniferous sandstone, siltstone, bauxite, and carboniferous materials [4]. The top vanadium miners in 2020 were China (39%), South Africa (31%), and Russia (25%) [3]. The top vanadium refiners in 2020 were China (57%), South Africa (13%), and Russia (9%) [3].

Criticality

Vanadium is not considered by Department of Energy criteria, which includes an analysis of importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has low criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5]. Vanadium makes up most of the cost of vanadium redox batteries, therefore having a significant effect on production costs [4].

Yttrium

Yttrium (Y)

Properties

Yttrium is a transition metal with atomic number 39 [1]. It is a solid at room temperature and has properties similar to the lanthanide group [1, 4].

Applications

Yttrium is used in phosphors for fluorescent lamps, televisions, and liquid crystal display (LCD) screens [4]. It is also used to increase the strength of structural alloys [4].

Sources

Yttrium is available worldwide in monazite, xenotime, and ion-absorbing clays [4]. The top yttrium miners in 2020 were China (86%), Australia (6%), and the United States and Russia (2% each) [3].

Criticality

Yttrium is critical by Department of Energy criteria, which includes importance to clean energy and supply risk [4]. It has high criticality by Critical Materials Institute criteria, which assess importance to energy technologies [5].5 The short-term supply of yttrium is expected to be tight as demand increases for use in more efficient fluorescent lighting in the United States and worldwide [4]. There is no current substitute for yttrium as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps [4].